The Islamists were ousted, but not neutralized

Some key Islamist leaders were killed in Operation Serval, but others survived, fleeing across the vast desert to shelter.

"The French tried to monitor the region to make sure the Islamists will be prevented from further attacks," says Marie Rodet, a senior lecturer in the history of Africa at SOAS, University of London.

"But some were able to escape and hide further north with local complicity."